By the end of this module you will be able to: explain the statutory definition of domestic abuse and coercive control; describe the three routes by which children are harmed; recognise observable indicators and respond to indirect disclosures; follow the agreed staff and DSL protocol step by step; understand multi-agency decision making, early help versus children's social care referral, MARAC, and the lawful basis for information sharing; and apply these principles to a realistic school scenario.
1. The Statutory Definition of Domestic Abuse and Coercive Control
The Domestic Abuse Act 2021 introduced the first statutory definition of domestic abuse in English and Welsh law. Behaviour constitutes domestic abuse where it occurs between two people who are personally connected — including current or former intimate partners and relatives — and where that behaviour is abusive. The Act applies to people aged 16 and over.
Abusive behaviour under the definition includes: physical or sexual abuse; violent or threatening behaviour; controlling or coercive behaviour; psychological or emotional abuse (including humiliation and gaslighting); and economic abuse — controlling access to money, employment or housing. Crucially, physical violence is not required. A relationship characterised wholly by financial control, isolation and threats can meet the statutory threshold.
Coercive and Controlling Behaviour
Coercive control is a pattern of behaviour designed to make a victim subordinate, isolated and permanently fearful. Common features include monitoring communications and movements, controlling finances, regulating daily routines, using children as leverage, and repeated humiliation. It was criminalised under section 76 of the Serious Crime Act 2015 and carries a maximum sentence of five years' imprisonment. The behaviour does not need to constitute a single act — the pattern is the offence.
2. How Domestic Abuse Harms Children: Three Routes of Impact
Under section 3 of the Domestic Abuse Act 2021, a child who sees, hears, or experiences the effects of domestic abuse, and who is related to or personally connected with either the victim or the perpetrator, is a victim of domestic abuse in their own right. Children in a domestic abuse household are not bystanders. They are harmed, and the school has a duty to respond to that harm.
Direct abuse
Some children are themselves the target of physical, emotional or sexual abuse by the same perpetrator harming the adult victim. A child may be hurt while trying to intervene, or may be targeted as an extension of the adult abuse. Direct abuse of the child requires urgent referral on its own terms, regardless of what happens in respect of the adult.
Witnessing abuse
Children do not need to be in the room where violence occurs to be harmed. They hear confrontations from other rooms, see a parent's injuries and distress, and absorb the pervasive atmosphere of fear in a coercive household. Witnessing domestic abuse constitutes emotional harm under section 31 of the Children Act 1989, and where this impairs — or is likely to impair — a child's health or development, it meets the threshold for significant harm. This triggers children's services' duty to investigate under section 47 of the Children Act 1989 where there is reasonable cause to suspect that harm.
Indirect and cumulative harm
Even where a child does not witness specific incidents, living in a domestic abuse household causes harm through disrupted attachment, parentification (children taking on caring responsibilities for parents or siblings), economic instability, repeated school moves, and the normalisation of abusive relationship dynamics. Research shows that children who grow up in a domestic abuse household are significantly more likely to be involved in abusive relationships as adults. This is not inevitable: early intervention and stable relationships with trusted adults can break the cycle.
3. Observable Indicators and Indirect Disclosures
Children rarely make direct, explicit disclosures of domestic abuse. Most never tell anyone outside the home. School staff are uniquely placed to notice changes because they see children daily and know each child's individual baseline. No single indicator is diagnostic. What matters is a pattern, a change from baseline, or a combination of concerns that prompts the member of staff to speak to the DSL. The threshold for sharing a concern is low: if something does not feel right, say something.
Indicators in children
| Area | What you might observe |
|---|---|
| Mood and behaviour | Unexplained changes in mood; increased irritability, tearfulness or aggression; emotional outbursts disproportionate to events at school |
| Anxiety and hypervigilance | Persistent anxiety; startling at sudden noises; watchfulness; "frozen watchfulness" in younger children |
| Withdrawal | Becoming quiet, disengaged from peers and activities the child previously enjoyed |
| Attendance | Repeated absences, particularly on Mondays; lateness; reluctance to go home at end of day |
| Attainment | Declining academic performance; difficulty concentrating — a brain in a persistent threat-response state cannot learn effectively |
| Parentification | Taking excessive responsibility for siblings; arriving with younger children; managing adult problems at home |
| Creative expression | Artwork, writing or role-play repeatedly returning to themes of fear, violence or adults hurting each other |
| Self-harm | Evidence of self-harm; statements about not wanting to be alive; risk-taking behaviour in adolescents |
Indicators in parents and carers
- A parent who appears fearful or looks to a partner before speaking
- A partner who attends all school meetings, speaks on the parent's behalf and prevents independent contact with school
- Unexplained or implausibly explained injuries on a parent
- A parent who appears distressed and disengaged from their child's education without explanation
What an indirect disclosure sounds like
An indirect disclosure occurs when a child shares information about home without explicitly asking for help. These are easy to miss because they can be brief and embedded in ordinary conversation:
"We had to stay at my auntie's because Mum and her boyfriend had a big fight."
"Mum had a mark on her face but she said she walked into a door."
"I don't know why Mum doesn't just leave. She can't though because he says he'll take us away."
An indirect disclosure may also appear in written work, during drama, in a drawing, or via a comment relayed to staff by a peer. Whatever the route, the response is the same: listen calmly, acknowledge without alarm, and report to the DSL without delay. Do not probe, do not promise confidentiality, do not seek to resolve within the family.
4. KCSIE 2026, the DSL and Multi-Agency Decision Making
Keeping Children Safe in Education 2026 (KCSIE 2026) is the statutory safeguarding guidance for schools in England. It expressly identifies domestic abuse as a specific safeguarding issue. All staff must know how to respond to a concern and must report to the Designated Safeguarding Lead (DSL) without delay. The DSL holds lead responsibility for all child protection decisions.
In domestic abuse cases the DSL's multi-agency responsibilities include:
- Consulting the MASH (Multi-Agency Safeguarding Hub) where the referral threshold is unclear. The MASH can advise without a formal referral being made
- Contributing to strategy discussions where children's social care and police convene to decide how to respond to a suspected case of significant harm
- Providing a written report and attending child protection conferences wherever possible, and participating in core group meetings where a child protection plan is in place
- Engaging with Operation Encompass — following the Victims and Prisoners Act 2024 (which inserted section 49A into the Domestic Abuse Act 2021), all 43 police forces in England and Wales have a statutory duty to notify a school's DSL by 9am on the morning after a domestic abuse incident where a child is believed to be a victim. The DSL, as trained Key Adult, should check in with the child before school starts and record the notification as a safeguarding concern
5. Step-by-Step Staff and DSL Protocol
Part A — All school staff: responding to a concern or disclosure
- Listen and stay calm. Do not interrupt, show alarm, or finish the child's sentences. Create space for the child to speak.
- Do not promise confidentiality. If asked to keep a secret, say: "I care about you and want to help, but I can't promise to keep secrets if I'm worried about your safety. Only the people who need to know to keep you safe will be told."
- Do not investigate. Ask only open, non-leading questions if needed to clarify what has been said. You are there to hear and record, not to gather evidence.
- Acknowledge and reassure. Tell the child they were right to say something and that what is happening is not their fault.
- Record accurately and promptly. As soon as practicable, write a verbatim or near-verbatim account using the child's own words. Note date, time, setting, who was present, and your name and role. Record what you observed as well as what was said. Do not paraphrase or interpret.
- Report to the DSL without delay. Go directly to the DSL — or deputy DSL in their absence. Do not wait until the end of the day. Do not share with colleagues, the child's parents, or the alleged perpetrator.
- Do not contact the alleged perpetrator. Doing so could significantly increase risk to the child, the non-abusing parent, and yourself.
Part B — The DSL: assessment, referral and ongoing actions
- Receive and record. Take a full account from the referring member of staff. Ensure the record is stored securely on the school's safeguarding system, dated and timed.
- Review the child's whole picture. Check for previous concerns, earlier referrals, Operation Encompass notifications, and attendance patterns. A single incident may be significant in context.
- Make a proportionate assessment. Does the information indicate a child in need (section 17 Children Act 1989), a child at risk of significant harm (section 47), or a child who would benefit from early help? Document your reasoning.
- Consult the MASH if the threshold is unclear. Record the name of the person you spoke to, the advice given, and the date and time.
- Consider parent contact as a safety decision. In domestic abuse cases, informing a parent before a referral is made can place the child or non-abusing parent at greater risk if the perpetrator is in the household. Discuss with the duty social worker before making contact. Where it is safe to do so, parents should generally be informed — but safety is the overriding consideration.
- Make a referral if the threshold is met. Where you have reasonable cause to suspect significant harm, refer to children's social care by telephone and confirm in writing within 24 hours. If no response is received within one working day, follow up and record that you have done so. Call 999 if a child is in immediate danger.
- Consider early help where the threshold is not met. Where a concern indicates a child in need but not immediate risk of significant harm, early help is appropriate: a team around the family, referral to a local domestic abuse service, school counselling, or a section 17 Child in Need assessment.
- Record all decisions, including decisions not to refer. A decision not to refer is a professional decision that must be documented, with reasoning.
- Continue to monitor. After a referral or early help, the school's role does not end. Record any further changes in the child's presentation or any new information. The school is often the most consistent point of contact in a child's life during a crisis.
6. MARAC Context and Lawful Information Sharing
MARAC
A Multi-Agency Risk Assessment Conference (MARAC) is a regular meeting held in every local authority area where representatives from police, children's social care, housing, health, probation and Independent Domestic Violence Advisers (IDVAs) share information about the highest-risk domestic abuse cases and co-ordinate a safety plan. Referrals to MARAC are made by police and IDVAs, typically where a victim scores at or above the high-risk threshold on the DASH (Domestic Abuse, Stalking and Honour-Based Violence) risk identification checklist, or where professional judgement indicates high risk regardless of score.
Schools cannot refer directly to MARAC. Where a DSL believes a family may be MARAC-eligible, they should contact their local IDVA service or MASH to escalate the concern. Where a family is subject to MARAC, the school will often be asked to provide written information about the child's presentation, disclosures and attendance, and may be asked to attend. The school should implement any MARAC safety plan actions that affect the child's school day — such as agreed collection arrangements or alerts about who is authorised to collect the child.
Lawful information sharing
The UK General Data Protection Regulation (UK GDPR) and the Data Protection Act 2018 do not prevent the sharing of information for safeguarding purposes. Schedule 2, Part 1 of the Data Protection Act 2018 provides a specific exemption for processing personal data where it is necessary to safeguard children. You do not need consent to share where there is a safeguarding concern — seeking consent may itself place the child at risk by alerting the perpetrator. Share the minimum information necessary, with the minimum people necessary, for the purpose of keeping the child safe, and record what was shared, with whom, why and when.
7. Case Study: An Indirect Disclosure at Oakfield Primary School
📘 Fictional scenario
Maisie is eight years old and attends Year 3 at Oakfield Primary School. Until recently she was a cheerful, engaged pupil who loved art club. Over the past five weeks her class teacher, Mr Okafor, has noticed she has become quiet and withdrawn, arrives looking tired, and has been noticeably late on three Monday mornings. Her artwork has become sparse and dark.
One afternoon as the class is tidying up, Maisie tells Mr Okafor: "I don't like going home any more. Mum and Darren are always shouting. Last night Mum was crying and she had a funny mark on her arm but she said she was fine." She then adds: "Please don't tell anyone — Darren will be really angry if he finds out I said something."
Analysing the concern
The behavioural indicators — withdrawal, fatigue, Monday lateness, changed artwork — have been accumulating over five weeks and would alone have warranted a conversation with the DSL. Maisie's comment then provides an indirect disclosure: she describes arguing at home, her mother's distress and an unexplained mark, and — critically — she expresses fear of what Darren will do if he learns she has spoken. The request for secrecy is itself important information: Maisie is, at eight years old, already managing the perpetrator's behaviour through silence.
Mr Okafor's response in the moment
Mr Okafor responds calmly: "Thank you for telling me that, Maisie. It sounds like things have been really hard. I can't promise to keep secrets if I'm worried about your safety, but I'll be careful, and the most important thing is that you and your mum are okay." He does not ask further questions about Darren or about the mark. He does not express alarm or make promises about what will happen next. He makes a note of Maisie's exact words as soon as the class is settled, then goes directly to the DSL — Ms Barker — before the end of school.
The DSL's decision making
Ms Barker reviews Maisie's file. She notes a previous concern from six months ago — a former class teacher had recorded that Maisie occasionally mentioned Mum and Darren arguing, monitored but not referred — and a gradual decline in attendance coinciding with Darren moving into the household approximately eight months earlier.
The cumulative picture — five weeks of behavioural change, two separate sets of concerns over six months, an indirect disclosure involving an unexplained injury to Maisie's mother, and Maisie's expressed fear of a named adult in the home — is sufficient to reach the threshold for a referral to children's social care. Ms Barker telephones the local MASH, explains the concern, and asks for duty advice. The social worker confirms a formal referral should be made and advises that Maisie's mother should not be contacted before an initial assessment, as Darren lives in the household and alerting him before an assessment is completed could increase risk. Ms Barker makes the referral by telephone and confirms it in writing within 24 hours. She records the social worker's name, advice given, referral details, date and time. She informs Mr Okafor on a need-to-know basis and ensures he knows how to respond if Maisie raises the matter again.
What this case demonstrates
- Behavioural indicators accumulating over time are as significant as a spoken disclosure
- A request for secrecy is important information, not a reason to stay silent
- The DSL's decision to refer was based on the cumulative picture, not on any single piece of information
- Parent contact was treated as a safety decision, not a procedural formality
- The concern led to a proportionate referral — not an assumption about what would follow from it
- Every step, including the MASH consultation, was documented
8. School-Wide Actions
Responding effectively to domestic abuse requires a whole-school approach — not just the DSL's individual actions.
- Policy: The school's child protection and safeguarding policy must explicitly address domestic abuse as a specific safeguarding concern in line with KCSIE 2026. All staff should receive annual training that covers indicators, response to indirect disclosures, and the referral pathway — not as a single slide, but with sufficient depth to build real confidence
- Operation Encompass: Register the school at operationencompass.org to ensure the DSL receives police notifications. When a notification is received, check in with the child before school starts and record it as a safeguarding concern
- Safe environment: Children who know there are trusted adults who will take them seriously are more likely to disclose. Display Childline (0800 1111) and the National Domestic Abuse Helpline (0808 2000 247) in appropriate spaces. Deliver age-appropriate Relationships and Sex Education (RSE) and PSHE content about healthy relationships
- Adult victims in the school community: Where a parent is identified as a victim, signpost them to the National Domestic Abuse Helpline (0808 2000 247, 24 hours, free) or — for male victims — the Men's Advice Line (0808 801 0327). A parent actively seeking safety is a significant protective factor for the child
- Record keeping: All safeguarding records must be stored securely, separately from the main pupil file, and transferred promptly if the child moves school. Access must be restricted to those with a need to know — records must never be accessible to the perpetrator
Summary: Five Things Every Staff Member Should Remember
- Domestic abuse harms children through direct abuse, witnessing, and indirect cumulative effects. Children are victims in their own right under the Domestic Abuse Act 2021.
- Indirect disclosures are more common than direct ones. Changes in behaviour over time matter as much as words.
- Never promise secrecy, never investigate, never contact the alleged perpetrator. Listen, record accurately, and refer to the DSL without delay.
- Domestic abuse concerns require proportionate professional assessment. They do not automatically result in any particular outcome, but they always require a response.
- When in doubt, speak to the DSL. The threshold for sharing a concern is lower than the threshold for doing nothing.
Support and further resources
Operation Encompass: operationencompass.org · National Domestic Abuse Helpline: 0808 2000 247 (24 hours, free) · Men's Advice Line: 0808 801 0327 · Childline: 0800 1111 · SafeLives: safelives.org.uk · Women's Aid: womensaid.org.uk · Refuge: refuge.org.uk