Domestic Abuse & Its Impact on Children: A Guide for Schools and Parents

What Is Domestic Abuse?

The Domestic Abuse Act 2021 introduced the first statutory definition of domestic abuse in English and Welsh law. It applies where two people aged 16 or over are personally connected — including couples, ex-partners, and family members — and where one person's behaviour towards the other is abusive.^[3]

Abusive behaviour under the Act includes:

• Physical or sexual abuse
• Violent or threatening behaviour
• Controlling or coercive behaviour — including monitoring movements, isolating from friends and family, and controlling finances
• Psychological or emotional abuse — including gaslighting, humiliation, and threats
• Economic abuse — controlling access to money, work, housing, or essential resources (explicitly included for the first time in the 2021 Act)

Domestic abuse does not require physical violence. Coercive control — made a criminal offence under the Serious Crime Act 2015, section 76 — is one of the most dangerous and under-recognised forms of abuse. Perpetrators can receive up to five years in prison for coercive control.

Children Are Victims Too: The Legal Position

Section 3 of the Domestic Abuse Act 2021 explicitly recognises children as victims of domestic abuse in their own right — not just as witnesses. This applies where a child sees, hears, or experiences the effects of domestic abuse and is related to or connected with either the victim or the perpetrator.

This is a significant shift in law. Previously, children in a domestic abuse household were often treated as secondary to the adult victim's situation. The 2021 Act makes clear that the child is harmed independently of whether they are directly targeted.

Under the Children Act 1989, section 31, a child is suffering significant harm where their health or development is impaired, or likely to be impaired, relative to what could reasonably be expected of a similar child. Witnessing domestic abuse constitutes emotional harm that meets this threshold. This triggers the duty of children's services to investigate under section 47 where there is reasonable cause to suspect significant harm.

KCSIE 2025 lists domestic abuse as a specific safeguarding issue. DSLs must be confident in identifying indicators and in making timely referrals.^[4]

The Impact of Domestic Abuse on Children's Development

The effects of growing up in a domestic abuse household are wide-ranging and can persist into adulthood. The severity depends on a range of factors including the child's age, the type and duration of abuse, whether the child is also directly targeted, and the presence of protective factors (such as a stable relationship with the non-abusing parent or another trusted adult).

Infants and Toddlers (0–2)

Babies and very young children are often thought to be "too young to be affected". Research consistently shows this is not the case. Domestic abuse during pregnancy is associated with low birth weight and premature birth. In infancy, exposure to domestic abuse disrupts attachment — the critical bond between baby and caregiver — because the caregiver is themselves traumatised, stressed, or absent. Poor early attachment is one of the strongest predictors of later mental health and relationship difficulties.

Primary School Age (5–11)

• Behavioural problems — aggression, hyperactivity, or extreme withdrawal
• Poor concentration and attainment — the brain in a constant state of threat-response cannot learn effectively
• Sleep disturbance — nightmares, fear of sleeping, appearing exhausted at school
• Regression — wetting the bed, thumb-sucking, baby talk in children who had moved past these stages
• Anxiety and somatic complaints — stomach aches, headaches with no clear physical cause
• Hyper-vigilance — constantly scanning for danger, startling at loud noises
• Blaming themselves for what happens at home

Adolescents (12–18)

• Depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Substance misuse — alcohol and drugs as coping mechanisms
• Self-harm or suicidal ideation
• School avoidance, exclusion, and significant drops in attainment
• Running away from home
• Risk-taking behaviour — including early sexual activity
• Becoming involved in abusive relationships themselves — witnessing DA normalises these dynamics
• Becoming a young carer — for the victim parent, younger siblings, or sometimes the perpetrator

What Schools Should Look For

Children rarely disclose domestic abuse directly. School staff are often better placed than anyone to notice changes that indicate something is wrong at home. The following indicators — particularly in combination or where they represent a change from the child's baseline — should prompt a conversation with the DSL.

Signs in the Child

• Unexplained changes in behaviour, mood, or academic performance
• Increased aggression or, conversely, extreme withdrawal
• Persistent tiredness — domestic abuse incidents often happen at night
• Poor hygiene or inappropriate clothing (possible neglect alongside DA)
• Fear or anxiety around home time, pick-up, or a particular parent or carer
• Reluctance to go home or repeatedly staying late
• Disclosures — direct or indirect — about arguments, shouting, or violence at home ("Mum and Dad were fighting again", "Dad hurt Mum")
• Artwork, writing, or play that reflects themes of violence or fear at home
• Unexplained injuries — though children in DA households are not always directly hurt
• Running away or missing from home (particularly adolescents)

Signs in the Parent or Carer

• A parent who appears fearful, anxious, or controlled by their partner
• A partner who insists on attending all school meetings and speaks on the parent's behalf
• Inconsistency between what the parent and child say about events at home
• A parent who is frequently accompanied or monitored when collecting the child
• Visible injuries on the parent that are unexplained or explained implausibly
• A parent who appears disengaged from their child's education — this may reflect the cognitive and emotional burden of living with abuse

After an Incident: Operation Encompass

Children often come to school the day after a domestic abuse incident without the school knowing anything has happened. Operation Encompass is the national scheme that closes this gap. Following the Victims and Prisoners Act 2024, it is now a statutory duty (s.49A of the Domestic Abuse Act 2021): every police force in England and Wales must notify a child's school where officers have reasonable grounds to believe the child is a victim of domestic abuse.

Operation Encompass

Operation Encompass is a partnership between police and schools that ensures DSLs are informed about domestic abuse incidents involving their pupils — before the child arrives at school the following morning.

How It Works

1. Police attend a domestic abuse incident and identify that a school-age child is present or nearby
2. The attending officer records the child's school details
3. By 9am the following morning, the school's DSL receives a notification — the "Encompass call" — from a trained police officer
4. The DSL can then prepare appropriate support before the child arrives: a quiet word, a safe space, access to the school counsellor, or simply being aware that today may be a difficult day

What the Notification Contains

The notification is brief and purposeful. It typically includes the child's name, that there has been a domestic abuse incident, and any immediate concerns for the child's safety. It does not include detailed information about the incident. DSLs should treat all Encompass notifications as confidential and as triggering a safeguarding record.

Registering for Operation Encompass

Following the Victims and Prisoners Act 2024 (s.49A of the Domestic Abuse Act 2021), Operation Encompass is now a statutory duty on all 43 police forces in England and Wales — so the duty to notify sits with the police, not just forces that opt in. Schools should still register a trained Key Adult at operationencompass.org so notifications reach someone who can act, putting your school in the best position to support children on the days when they most need it — and it costs nothing.

The DASH Risk Assessment

The Domestic Abuse, Stalking and Honour-Based Violence (DASH) risk assessment is the standard tool used by police and frontline practitioners across the UK to identify the level of risk posed by a domestic abuse situation. DSLs don't administer DASH themselves — police and social workers do — but understanding what it means helps DSLs interpret information from other agencies and engage appropriately in multi-agency meetings.

How DASH Works

DASH involves 27 questions covering the nature, frequency, escalation, and context of the abuse — including factors such as threats to kill, access to weapons, substance misuse, and recent separation (which is often the point of highest risk). Based on the total score and professional judgement, cases are categorised as:

Category	Score	Response
Standard	Below threshold	No immediate specialist intervention, but safety planning and monitoring
Medium	Above threshold but below high	Multi-agency referral, increased monitoring, safety planning
High	14+ (or professional override)	Referral to MARAC — Multi-Agency Risk Assessment Conference

MARAC

A MARAC is a multi-agency meeting — attended by police, social care, health, housing, schools and other partners — that focuses on the highest-risk domestic abuse cases. The purpose is to share information, assess risk, and create a co-ordinated safety plan. Schools may be invited to contribute to MARAC discussions about a child in their care. DSLs should be prepared to share relevant school observations and attend or provide written information where requested.

In a MARAC context, the child's school is a key source of ongoing monitoring. The DSL's observations — changes in the child's behaviour, disclosures, attendance — can be critical information for the multi-agency team.

The Domestic Abuse Act 2021: What Schools Need to Know

Provision	What it means for schools
Statutory definition of domestic abuse (s.1)	Includes economic abuse and coercive control — not just physical violence. DSLs must recognise these less visible forms as abuse.
Children as victims in their own right (s.3)	A child who sees, hears, or experiences the effects of domestic abuse is a victim. This is the legal basis for treating a DA household as a child protection concern.
Domestic Abuse Commissioner (s.67)	Independent commissioner to oversee the response to DA and drive improvements in practice. Produces annual reports on the state of the DA response nationally.
Prohibition on cross-examination by perpetrators	In family court proceedings, perpetrators can no longer cross-examine victims directly. Relevant context for DSLs supporting families navigating court proceedings.
Coercive control already criminalised (Serious Crime Act 2015, s.76)	A criminal offence where the perpetrator and victim are personally connected. Up to 5 years in prison. Schools should not assume abuse isn't happening just because there's no physical violence.

Guidance for Parents: If Your Child Has Witnessed Domestic Abuse

Referral Pathways for DSLs

Where a child is at risk of significant harm due to domestic abuse in the household, the DSL must make a referral to children's services (MASH). Do not wait for the situation to become a crisis or for physical injury to occur. Emotional harm — including from witnessing domestic abuse — is sufficient. The threshold in Working Together 2026 is reasonable cause to suspect significant harm.^[5]

Situation	Action
Child discloses DA at home	Record verbatim, refer to MASH same day, safety plan with child, do not contact alleged perpetrator
Operation Encompass notification received	Ensure appropriate in-school support before child arrives; update safeguarding record; consider whether MASH referral is required
Behavioural indicators only (no disclosure)	Gather observations, discuss with DSL; consider early help referral or MASH referral depending on threshold
Child is in immediate danger	Call 999 immediately
MARAC case — school involvement requested	DSL attends or provides written contribution; shares observations confidentially within MARAC framework

Frequently Asked Questions

Who to Contact

Sources: [1] Office for National Statistics (2023). Domestic abuse in England and Wales overview: November 2023. ons.gov.uk. [2] SafeLives (2023). Insights Idash data. safelives.org.uk. [3] Domestic Abuse Act 2021. legislation.gov.uk. [4] Department for Education (2025). Keeping Children Safe in Education 2025. gov.uk. [5] HM Government (2026). Working Together to Safeguard Children 2026. gov.uk. [6] Serious Crime Act 2015, s.76 (coercive control). legislation.gov.uk. [7] Children Act 1989, s.31. legislation.gov.uk. Last reviewed: May 2026.